D. Ferrandon, J. Imler, C. Hetru, and J. Hoffmann, The Drosophila systemic immune response: sensing and signalling during bacterial and fungal infections, Nature Reviews Immunology, vol.310, issue.11, pp.862-874, 2007.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.173.12.7339

D. Gregorio, E. Spellman, P. Tzou, P. Rubin, G. Lemaitre et al., The Toll and Imd pathways are the major regulators of the immune response in Drosophila, The EMBO Journal, vol.21, issue.11, pp.2568-2579, 2002.
DOI : 10.1093/emboj/21.11.2568

K. Aggarwal and N. Silverman, Positive and negative regulation of the Drosophila immune response, BMB Reports, vol.41, issue.4, pp.267-277, 2008.
DOI : 10.5483/BMBRep.2008.41.4.267

L. Teixeira, Whole-genome expression profile analysis of Drosophila melanogaster immune responses, Briefings in Functional Genomics, vol.11, issue.5, pp.375-386, 2012.
DOI : 10.1093/bfgp/els043

B. Lemaitre, J. Reichhart, and J. Hoffmann, Drosophila host defense: Differential induction of antimicrobial peptide genes after infection by various classes of microorganisms, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.120, issue.1, pp.14614-14619, 1997.
DOI : 10.1099/00221287-120-1-173

D. Mengin-lecreulx and B. Lemaitre, Structure and metabolism of peptidoglycan and molecular requirements allowing its detection by the Drosophila innate immune system, Journal of Endotoxin Research, vol.2, issue.2, pp.105-111, 2005.
DOI : 10.1038/ni952

F. Leulier, C. Parquet, S. Pili-floury, J. Ryu, and M. Caroff, The Drosophila immune system detects bacteria through specific peptidoglycan recognition, Nature Immunology, vol.4, issue.5, pp.478-484, 2003.
DOI : 10.1038/ni922

T. Kaneko, W. Goldman, P. Mellroth, H. Steiner, and K. Fukase, Monomeric and Polymeric Gram-Negative Peptidoglycan but Not Purified LPS Stimulate the Drosophila IMD Pathway, Immunity, vol.20, issue.5, pp.637-649, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S1074-7613(04)00104-9

C. Stenbak, J. Ryu, F. Leulier, S. Pili-floury, and C. Parquet, Peptidoglycan Molecular Requirements Allowing Detection by the Drosophila Immune Deficiency Pathway, The Journal of Immunology, vol.173, issue.12, pp.7339-7348, 2004.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.173.12.7339

X. Lu, M. Wang, J. Qi, H. Wang, and X. Li, Peptidoglycan Recognition Proteins Are a New Class of Human Bactericidal Proteins, Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.106, issue.9, pp.5895-5907, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ygeno.2004.01.003

J. Royet and R. Dziarski, Peptidoglycan recognition proteins: pleiotropic sensors and effectors of antimicrobial defences, Nature Reviews Microbiology, vol.506, issue.4, pp.264-277, 2007.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.175.3.1785
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00159533

P. Mellroth, J. Karlsson, and H. Steiner, Peptidoglycan Recognition Protein, Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.8, issue.9, pp.7059-7064, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S1074-7613(01)00249-7

M. Kim, M. Byun, and B. Oh, Crystal structure of peptidoglycan recognition protein LB from Drosophila melanogaster, Nature Immunology, vol.4, issue.8, pp.787-793, 2003.
DOI : 10.1038/ni952

P. Mellroth and H. Steiner, PGRP-SB1: An N-acetylmuramoyl l-alanine amidase with antibacterial activity, Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol.350, issue.4, pp.994-999, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.09.139

V. Bischoff, C. Vignal, B. Duvic, I. Boneca, and J. Hoffmann, Downregulation of the Drosophila Immune Response by Peptidoglycan-Recognition Proteins SC1 and SC2, PLoS Pathogens, vol.17, issue.2, p.14, 2006.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.ppat.0020014.sg002
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00095084

A. Zaidman-remy, M. Herve, M. Poidevin, S. Pili-floury, and M. Kim, The Drosophila Amidase PGRP-LB Modulates the Immune Response to Bacterial Infection, Immunity, vol.24, issue.4, pp.463-473, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.immuni.2006.02.012
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00168073

J. Paredes, D. Welchman, M. Poidevin, and B. Lemaitre, Negative Regulation by Amidase PGRPs Shapes the Drosophila Antibacterial Response and Protects the Fly from Innocuous Infection, Immunity, vol.35, issue.5, pp.770-779, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.09.018

A. Zaidman-remy, M. Poidevin, M. Herve, D. Welchman, and J. Paredes, Drosophila Immunity: Analysis of PGRP-SB1 Expression, Enzymatic Activity and Function, PLoS ONE, vol.98, issue.2, p.17231, 2011.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pone.0017231.g007

T. Michel, J. Reichhart, J. Hoffmann, and J. Royet, Drosophila Toll is activated by Gram-positive bacteria through a circulating peptidoglycan recognition protein, Nature, vol.414, issue.6865, pp.756-759, 2001.
DOI : 10.1038/414756a

V. Bischoff, C. Vignal, I. Boneca, T. Michel, and J. Hoffmann, Function of the drosophila pattern-recognition receptor PGRP-SD in the detection of Gram-positive bacteria, Nature Immunology, vol.267, issue.11, pp.1175-1180, 2004.
DOI : 10.1074/jbc.C200651200
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00311252

M. Gottar, V. Gobert, T. Michel, M. Belvin, and G. Duyk, The Drosophila immune response against Gram-negative bacteria is mediated by a peptidoglycan recognition protein, Nature, vol.416, issue.6881, pp.640-644, 2002.
DOI : 10.1038/nature734
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00311260

K. Choe, T. Werner, S. Stoven, D. Hultmark, and K. Anderson, Requirement for a Peptidoglycan Recognition Protein (PGRP) in Relish Activation and Antibacterial Immune Responses in Drosophila, Science, vol.296, issue.5566, pp.359-362, 2002.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1070216

M. Ramet, P. Manfruelli, A. Pearson, B. Mathey-prevot, and R. Ezekowitz, Functional genomic analysis of phagocytosis and identification of a Drosophila receptor for E. coli, Nature, vol.416, issue.6881, pp.644-648, 2002.
DOI : 10.1038/nature735

A. Takehana, T. Yano, S. Mita, A. Kotani, and Y. Oshima, Peptidoglycan recognition protein (PGRP)-LE and PGRP-LC act synergistically in Drosophila immunity, The EMBO Journal, vol.36, issue.23, pp.4690-4700, 2004.
DOI : 10.1074/jbc.271.23.13854

T. Kaneko, T. Yano, K. Aggarwal, J. Lim, and K. Ueda, PGRP-LC and PGRP-LE have essential yet distinct functions in the drosophila immune response to monomeric DAP-type peptidoglycan, Nature Immunology, vol.14, issue.7, pp.715-723, 2006.
DOI : 10.1038/ni1356

C. Neyen, M. Poidevin, A. Roussel, and B. Lemaitre, Tissue- and Ligand-Specific Sensing of Gram-Negative Infection in Drosophila by PGRP-LC Isoforms and PGRP-LE, The Journal of Immunology, vol.189, issue.4, pp.1886-1897, 2012.
DOI : 10.4049/jimmunol.1201022

V. Bosco-drayon, M. Poidevin, I. Boneca, K. Narbonne-reveau, and J. Royet, Peptidoglycan Sensing by the Receptor PGRP-LE in the Drosophila Gut Induces Immune Responses to Infectious Bacteria and Tolerance to Microbiota, Cell Host & Microbe, vol.12, issue.2, pp.153-165, 2012.
DOI : 10.1016/j.chom.2012.06.002
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00843398

F. Maillet, V. Bischoff, C. Vignal, J. Hoffmann, and J. Royet, The Drosophila Peptidoglycan Recognition Protein??PGRP-LF Blocks PGRP-LC and IMD/JNK Pathway Activation, Cell Host & Microbe, vol.3, issue.5, pp.293-303, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.chom.2008.04.002
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00311246

N. Basbous, F. Coste, P. Leone, R. Vincentelli, and J. Royet, The Drosophila peptidoglycan-recognition protein LF interacts with peptidoglycan-recognition protein LC to downregulate the Imd pathway, EMBO reports, vol.12, issue.4, pp.327-333, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.immuni.2006.02.012
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00608209

V. Chintapalli, J. Wang, and J. Dow, Using FlyAtlas to identify better Drosophila melanogaster models of human disease, Nature Genetics, vol.38, issue.6, pp.715-720, 2007.
DOI : 10.1152/physrev.00035.2002

T. Werner, G. Liu, D. Kang, S. Ekengren, and H. Steiner, A family of peptidoglycan recognition proteins in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.2, issue.13, pp.13772-13777, 2000.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.90.13.6275

E. Meylan, K. Burns, K. Hofmann, V. Blancheteau, and F. Martinon, RIP1 is an essential mediator of Toll-like receptor 3???induced NF-??B activation, Nature Immunology, vol.8, issue.5, pp.503-507, 2004.
DOI : 10.1084/jem.20011470

C. Chang, K. Ihara, Y. Chelliah, D. Mengin-lecreulx, and S. Wakatsuki, Structure of the ectodomain of Drosophila peptidoglycan-recognition protein LCa suggests a molecular mechanism for pattern recognition, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.340, issue.4, pp.10279-10284, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jmb.2004.04.077

C. Orengo, T. Flores, D. Jones, W. Taylor, and J. Thornton, Recurring structural motifs in proteins with different functions, Current Biology, vol.3, issue.3, pp.131-139, 1993.
DOI : 10.1016/0960-9822(93)90254-L

L. Kelley and M. Sternberg, Protein structure prediction on the Web: a case study using the Phyre server, Nature Protocols, vol.5, issue.3, pp.363-371, 2009.
DOI : 10.1093/nar/gkm977

C. Chang, Y. Chelliah, D. Borek, D. Mengin-lecreulx, and J. Deisenhofer, Structure of Tracheal Cytotoxin in Complex with a Heterodimeric Pattern-Recognition Receptor, Science, vol.311, issue.5768, pp.1761-1764, 2006.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1123056

C. Chang, S. Pili-floury, M. Herve, C. Parquet, and Y. Chelliah, A Drosophila Pattern Recognition Receptor Contains a Peptidoglycan Docking Groove and Unusual L,D-Carboxypeptidase Activity, PLoS Biology, vol.265, issue.9, p.277, 2004.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.pbio.0020277.t001

B. Graveley, A. Brooks, J. Carlson, M. Duff, and J. Landolin, The developmental transcriptome of Drosophila melanogaster, Nature, vol.31, issue.7339, pp.473-479, 2011.
DOI : 10.1093/nar/gkg595

N. Buchon, N. Broderick, M. Poidevin, S. Pradervand, and B. Lemaitre, Drosophila Intestinal Response to Bacterial Infection: Activation of Host Defense and Stem Cell Proliferation, Cell Host & Microbe, vol.5, issue.2, pp.200-211, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.chom.2009.01.003

C. Wagner, K. Isermann, and T. Roeder, Infection induces a survival program and local remodeling in the airway epithelium of the fly, The FASEB Journal, vol.23, issue.7, pp.2045-2054, 2009.
DOI : 10.1096/fj.08-114223

A. Takehana, T. Katsuyama, T. Yano, Y. Oshima, and H. Takada, Overexpression of a pattern-recognition receptor, peptidoglycan-recognition protein-LE, activates imd/relish-mediated antibacterial defense and the prophenoloxidase cascade in Drosophila larvae, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.92, issue.17, pp.13705-13710, 2002.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.92.17.7769

A. Zaidman-rémy, M. Hervé, M. Poidevin, S. Pili-floury, and M. Kim, The Drosophila Amidase PGRP-LB Modulates the Immune Response to Bacterial Infection, Immunity, vol.24, issue.4, pp.463-473, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.immuni.2006.02.012

M. Gendrin, D. Welchman, M. Poidevin, M. Herve, and B. Lemaitre, Long-Range Activation of Systemic Immunity through Peptidoglycan Diffusion in Drosophila, PLoS Pathogens, vol.19, issue.12, p.1000694, 2009.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000694.s004

P. Tzou, S. Ohresser, D. Ferrandon, M. Capovilla, and J. Reichhart, Tissue-Specific Inducible Expression of Antimicrobial Peptide Genes in Drosophila Surface Epithelia, Immunity, vol.13, issue.5, pp.737-748, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S1074-7613(00)00072-8

A. Basset, R. Khush, A. Braun, L. Gardan, and F. Boccard, The phytopathogenic bacteria Erwinia carotovora infects Drosophila and activates an immune response, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.120, issue.1, pp.3376-3381, 2000.
DOI : 10.1099/00221287-120-1-173

D. Gregorio, E. Spellman, P. Rubin, G. Lemaitre, and B. , Genome-wide analysis of the Drosophila immune response by using oligonucleotide microarrays, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.260, issue.2, pp.12590-12595, 2001.
DOI : 10.1046/j.1432-1327.1999.00173.x

N. Buchon, N. Broderick, S. Chakrabarti, and B. Lemaitre, Invasive and indigenous microbiota impact intestinal stem cell activity through multiple pathways in Drosophila, Genes & Development, vol.23, issue.19, pp.2333-2344, 2009.
DOI : 10.1101/gad.1827009

N. Broderick and B. Lemaitre, Gut-associated microbes of Drosophila melanogaster, Gut Microbes, vol.134, issue.4, 2012.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2009.18001.x

K. Aggarwal, F. Rus, C. Vriesema-magnuson, D. Erturk-hasdemir, and N. Paquette, Rudra Interrupts Receptor Signaling Complexes to Negatively Regulate the IMD Pathway, PLoS Pathogens, vol.74, issue.8, p.1000120, 2008.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000120.s003

H. Uvell and Y. Engstrom, A multilayered defense against infection: combinatorial control of insect immune genes, Trends in Genetics, vol.23, issue.7, pp.342-349, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.tig.2007.05.003

E. Bangi, C. Pitsouli, L. Rahme, R. Cagan, and Y. Apidianakis, Immune response to bacteria induces dissemination of Ras-activated Drosophila hindgut cells, EMBO reports, vol.349, issue.6, pp.569-576, 2012.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.0906749106

H. Tang, Z. Kambris, B. Lemaitre, and C. Hashimoto, A Serpin that Regulates Immune Melanization in the Respiratory System of Drosophila, Developmental Cell, vol.15, issue.4, pp.617-626, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.devcel.2008.08.017

D. Ferrandon, A. Jung, M. Criqui, B. Lemaitre, and S. Uttenweiler-joseph, A drosomycin-GFP reporter transgene reveals a local immune response in Drosophila that is not dependent on the Toll pathway, The EMBO Journal, vol.17, issue.5, pp.1217-1227, 1998.
DOI : 10.1093/emboj/17.5.1217

I. Akhouayri, C. Turc, J. Royet, and B. Charroux, Toll-8/Tollo Negatively Regulates Antimicrobial Response in the Drosophila Respiratory Epithelium, PLoS Pathogens, vol.11, issue.10, p.1002319, 2011.
DOI : 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002319.s007

O. Tingvall, T. Roos, E. Engstrom, and Y. , barrier epithelia, EMBO reports, vol.95, issue.3, pp.239-243, 2001.
DOI : 10.1073/pnas.95.19.11342

M. Hedengren, B. Asling, M. Dushay, I. Ando, and S. Ekengren, Relish, a Central Factor in the Control of Humoral but Not Cellular Immunity in Drosophila, Molecular Cell, vol.4, issue.5, pp.827-837, 1999.
DOI : 10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80392-5

F. Leulier, A. Rodriguez, R. Khush, J. Abrams, and B. Lemaitre, caspase Dredd is required to resist Gram-negative bacterial infection, EMBO reports, vol.11, issue.4, pp.353-358, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80119-3

S. Vidal, R. Khush, F. Leulier, P. Tzou, and M. Nakamura, Mutations in the Drosophila dTAK1 gene reveal a conserved function for MAPKKKs in the control of rel/NF-kappaB-dependent innate immune responses, Genes & Development, vol.15, issue.15, pp.1900-1912, 2001.
DOI : 10.1101/gad.203301

Y. Romeo and B. Lemaitre, Drosophila Immunity, Methods Mol Biol, vol.415, pp.379-394, 2008.
DOI : 10.1007/978-1-59745-570-1_22
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00133466

E. Ryder, M. Ashburner, R. Bautista-llacer, J. Drummond, and J. Webster, The DrosDel Deletion Collection: A Drosophila Genomewide Chromosomal Deficiency Resource, Genetics, vol.177, issue.1, pp.615-629, 2007.
DOI : 10.1534/genetics.107.076216

S. Warming, N. Costantino, D. Court, N. Jenkins, and N. Copeland, Simple and highly efficient BAC recombineering using galK selection, Nucleic Acids Research, vol.33, issue.4, p.36, 2005.
DOI : 10.1093/nar/gni035

K. Venken, Y. He, R. Hoskins, and H. Bellen, P[acman]: A BAC Transgenic Platform for Targeted Insertion of Large DNA Fragments in D. melanogaster, Science, vol.314, issue.5806, pp.1747-1751, 2006.
DOI : 10.1126/science.1134426

M. Elrod-erickson, S. Mishra, and D. Schneider, Interactions between the cellular and humoral immune responses in Drosophila, Current Biology, vol.10, issue.13, pp.781-784, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0960-9822(00)00569-8